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In [[mathematics]], '''algebraic K-theory''' is an important part of [[homological algebra]] concerned with defining and applying a sequence
:''K<sub>n</sub>(R)''
of [[functor]]s from [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] to [[abelian group]]s, for all nonnegative integers ''n.'' For historical reasons, the '''[[#Lower K-groups|lower K-groups]]''' ''K''<sub>0</sub> and ''K''<sub>1</sub> are thought of in somewhat different terms from the '''[[#Higher K-theory|higher algebraic K-groups]]''' ''K<sub>n</sub>'' for ''n'' ≥ 2. Indeed, the lower groups are more accessible, and have more applications, than the higher groups. The theory of the higher K-groups is noticeably deeper, and certainly much harder to compute (even when ''R'' is the ring of [[integer]]s).
 
The group ''K<sub>0</sub>(R)'' generalises the construction of the [[ideal class group]] of a ring, using [[projective module]]s. Its development in the 1960s and 1970s was linked to attempts to solve a conjecture of [[Jean-Pierre Serre|Serre]] on projective modules that now is the [[Quillen-Suslin theorem]]; numerous other connections with classical algebraic problems were found in this era. Similarly, ''K<sub>1</sub>(R)'' is a modification of the group of [[unit (ring theory)|units]] in a ring, using [[elementary matrix]] theory. The group ''K<sub>1</sub>(R)'' is important in [[topology]], especially when ''R'' is a [[group ring]], because its quotient the [[Whitehead torsion#The Whitehead group of a group|Whitehead group]] contains the [[Whitehead torsion]] used to study problems in [[CW complex|simple homotopy theory]] and [[surgery theory]]; the group ''K<sub>0</sub>(R)'' also contains other invariants such as the finiteness invariant. Since the 1980s, algebraic ''K''-theory has increasingly had applications to [[algebraic geometry]]. For example, [[motivic cohomology]] is closely related to algebraic ''K''-theory.
 
== History ==
[[Alexander Grothendieck]] discovered K-theory in the mid-1950s as a framework to state his far-reaching generalization of the [[Riemann-Roch theorem]]. Within a few years, its topological counterpart was considered by [[Michael Atiyah]] and [[Friedrich Hirzebruch]] and is now known as [[topological K-theory]].
 
Applications of ''K''-groups were found from 1960 onwards in [[surgery theory]] for [[manifold]]s, in particular; and numerous other connections with classical algebraic problems were brought out.
 
A little later a branch of the theory for [[operator algebra]]s was fruitfully developed, resulting in [[operator K-theory]] and [[KK-theory]]. It also became clear that ''K''-theory could play a role in [[algebraic cycle]] theory in [[algebraic geometry]] ([[Gersten's conjecture]]): here the ''higher'' K-groups become connected with the ''higher codimension'' phenomena, which are exactly those that are harder to access. The problem was that the definitions were lacking (or, too many and not obviously consistent). Using Robert Steinberg's work on universal central extensions of classical algebraic groups, [[John Milnor]] defined the group  ''K<sub>2</sub>(A)'' of a ring ''A'' as the center, isomorphic to H<sub>2</sub>(E(''A''),'''Z'''), of the universal central extension of the group E(''A)'' of infinite elementary matrices over ''A''. (Definitions below.) There is a natural bilinear pairing from ''K<sub>1</sub>(A) × K<sub>1</sub>(A)'' to ''K<sub>2</sub>(A)''. In the special case of a field k, with ''K<sub>1</sub>(k)'' isomorphic to the multiplicative group GL(1,''k''), computations of Hideya Matsumoto showed that ''K<sub>2</sub>(k)'' is isomorphic to the group generated by ''K<sub>1</sub>(A) × K<sub>1</sub>(A)'' modulo an easily described set of relations.
 
Eventually the foundational difficulties were resolved (leaving a deep and difficult theory) by {{harvs|txt|authorlink=Daniel Quillen|last=Quillen|year1=1973|year2=1974}}, who gave several definitions of ''K<sub>n</sub>(A)'' for arbitrary non-negative ''n'', via the [[plus construction|+-construction]] and the ''Q''-construction.
 
== Lower K-groups ==
The lower K-groups were discovered first, and given various ad hoc descriptions, which remain useful. Throughout, let ''A'' be a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]].
 
=== ''K<sub>0</sub>'' ===
The functor ''K<sub>0</sub>'' takes a ring ''A'' to the [[Grothendieck group]] of the set of isomorphism classes of its [[finitely generated module|finitely generated]] [[projective module]]s, regarded as a monoid under direct sum. Any ring homomorphism ''A'' → ''B'' gives a map ''K<sub>0</sub>(A)'' → ''K<sub>0</sub>(B)'' by mapping (the class of) a projective ''A''-module ''M'' to ''M'' ⊗<sub>''A''</sub> ''B'', making ''K<sub>0</sub>'' a covariant functor.
 
If the ring ''A'' is commutative, we can define a subgroup of  ''K<sub>0</sub>(A)'' as the set
 
:<math>\tilde{K}_0\left(A\right) = \bigcap\limits_{\mathfrak p\text{ prime ideal of }A}\mathrm{Ker}\dim_{\mathfrak p},</math>
 
where :
 
:<math>\dim_{\mathfrak p}:K_0\left(A\right)\to \mathbf{Z}</math>
 
is the map sending every (class of a) finitely generated projective ''A''-module ''M'' to the rank of the free <math>A_{\mathfrak p}</math>-module <math>M_{\mathfrak p}</math> (this module is indeed free, as any finitely generated projective module over a local ring is free). This subgroup <math>\tilde{K}_0\left(A\right)</math> is known as the ''reduced zeroth K-theory'' of ''A''.
 
If ''B'' is a [[pseudo-ring|ring without an identity element]], we can extend the definition of K<sub>0</sub> as follows.  Let ''A'' = ''B''⊕'''Z''' be the extension of ''B'' to a ring with unity obtaining by adjoining an identity element (0,1).  There is a short exact sequence ''B'' → ''A'' → '''Z''' and we define K<sub>0</sub>(''B'') to be the kernel of the corresponding map K<sub>0</sub>(''A'') → K<sub>0</sub>('''Z''') = '''Z'''.<ref name=Ros30>Rosenberg (1994) p.30</ref>
 
====Examples====
* (Projective) modules over a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''k'' are [[vector space]]s and K<sub>0</sub>(''k'') is isomorphic to '''Z''', by [[Dimension (vector space)|dimension]].
* Finitely generated projective modules over a [[local ring]] ''A'' are free and so in this case again K<sub>0</sub>(''A'') is isomorphic to '''Z''', by [[Rank of a free module|rank]].<ref name=Mil5>Milnor (1971) p.5</ref>
* For ''A'' a [[Dedekind domain]],
 
:K<sub>0</sub>(''A'') = Pic(''A'') &oplus; '''Z''',
 
where Pic(''A'') is the [[Picard group]] of ''A'',<ref name=Mil14>Milnor (1971) p.14</ref> and similarly the reduced K-theory is given by
 
:<math>\tilde K_0(A)=\operatorname{Pic} A.</math>
 
An algebro-geometric variant of this construction is applied to the category of [[algebraic variety|algebraic varieties]]; it associates with a given algebraic variety ''X'' the Grothendieck's K-group of the category of locally free sheaves (or coherent sheaves) on ''X''. Given a [[compact topological space]] ''X'', the [[topological K-theory]] K<sup>top</sup>(''X'') of (real) [[vector bundle]]s over ''X'' coincides with ''K<sub>0</sub>'' of the ring of [[continuous function|continuous]] real-valued functions on ''X''.<ref>{{Citation | last1=Karoubi | first1=Max | title=K-Theory: an Introduction | publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] | location=Berlin, New York | series=Classics in mathematics | isbn=978-3-540-79889-7 | year=2008}}, see Theorem I.6.18</ref>
 
====Relative K<sub>0</sub>====
Let ''I'' be an ideal of ''A'' and define the "double" to be a subring of the [[Cartesian product]] ''A''×''A'':<ref name=Ros27>Rosenberg (1994) 1.5.1, p.27</ref>
 
:<math>D(A,I) = \{ (x,y) \in A \times A : x-y \in I \} \ . </math>
 
The ''relative K-group'' is defined in terms of the "double"<ref name=Ros27a>Rosenberg (1994) 1.5.3, p.27</ref>
 
:<math>K_0(A,I) = \ker \left({ K_0(D(A,I)) \rightarrow K_0(A) }\right) \ . </math>
 
where the map is induced by projection along the first factor.
 
The relative K<sub>0</sub>(''A'',''I'') is isomorphic to K<sub>0</sub>(''I''), regarding ''I'' as a ring without identity.  The independence from ''A'' is an analogue of the [[Excision theorem]] in homology.<ref name=Ros30/>
 
====''K''<sub>0</sub> as a ring====
If ''A'' is a commutative ring, then the [[tensor product]] of projective modules is again projective, and so tensor product induces a multiplication turning K<sub>0</sub> into a commutative ring with the class [''A''] as identity.<ref name=Mil5/>  The [[exterior product]] similarly induces a [[λ-ring]] structure.
The [[Picard group]] embeds as a subgroup of the group of units K<sub>0</sub>(''A'')<sup>&lowast;</sup>.<ref name=Mil15>Milnor (1971) p.15</ref>
 
=== ''K''<sub>1</sub> ===
[[Hyman Bass]] provided this definition, which generalizes the group of units of a ring: ''K<sub>1</sub>(A)'' is the [[abelianization]] of the [[infinite general linear group]]:
 
:<math>K_1(A) = \operatorname{GL}(A)^{\mbox{ab}} = \operatorname{GL}(A) / [\operatorname{GL}(A),\operatorname{GL}(A)]</math>
 
Here
 
:<math>\operatorname{GL}(A) = \operatorname{colim} \operatorname{GL}(n, A)</math>
 
is the [[direct limit]] of the GL(''n''), which embeds in GL(''n''+1) as the upper left [[block matrix]], and the [[commutator subgroup]] agrees with the group generated by elementary matrices ''E(A)=[GL(A), GL(A)]'', by [[Whitehead's lemma]]. Indeed, the group GL(''A'')/E(''A'') was first defined and studied by Whitehead,<ref>J.H.C. Whitehead, ''Simple homotopy types'' Amer. J. Math. , 72 (1950) pp. 1–57</ref> and is called the '''Whitehead group''' of the ring ''A''.
 
==== Relative ''K''<sub>1</sub> ====
The ''relative K-group'' is defined in terms of the "double"<ref name=Ros92>Rosenberg (1994) 2.5.1, p.92</ref>
 
:<math>K_1(A,I) = \ker \left({ K_1(D(A,I)) \rightarrow K_1(A) }\right) \ . </math>
 
There is a natural [[exact sequence]]<ref name=Ros95>Rosenberg (1994) 2.5.4, p.95</ref>
 
:<math> K_1(A,I) \rightarrow K_1(A) \rightarrow K_1(A/I) \rightarrow K_0(A,I) \rightarrow K_0(A) \rightarrow K_0(A/I) \ . </math>
 
==== Commutative rings and fields ====
For ''A'' a [[commutative ring]], one can define a determinant det: GL(''A'') → ''A*'' to the [[group of units]] of ''A'', which vanishes on E(''A'') and thus descends to a map det: ''K<sub>1</sub>(A)'' → ''A*''.  As E(''A'') ◅ SL(''A''), one can also define the '''special Whitehead group''' SK<sub>1</sub>(''A'') := SL(''A'')/E(''A''). This map splits via the map ''A*'' → GL(1, ''A'') → ''K<sub>1</sub>(A)'' (unit in the upper left corner), and hence is onto, and has the special Whitehead group as kernel, yielding the [[split short exact sequence]]:
 
:<math>1 \to SK_1(A) \to K_1(A) \to A^* \to 1,</math>
 
which is a quotient of the usual split short exact sequence defining the [[special linear group]], namely
 
:<math>1 \to \operatorname{SL}(A) \to \operatorname{GL}(A) \to A^* \to 1.</math>
 
The determinant is split by including the group of units  ''A*'' = GL<sub>1</sub>''(A)'' into the general linear group GL''(A)'', so  ''K<sub>1</sub>(A)'' splits as the direct sum of the group of units and the special Whitehead group: ''K<sub>1</sub>(A)'' ≅ ''A*'' ⊕ SK<sub>1</sub> (''A'').
 
When ''A'' is a Euclidean domain (e.g. a field, or the integers) SK<sub>1</sub>(''A'') vanishes, and the determinant map is an isomorphism from K<sub>1</sub>(''A'') to ''A''<sup>&lowast;</sup>.<ref name=Ros74>Rosenberg (1994) Theorem 2.3.2, p.74</ref> This is ''false'' in general for PIDs, thus providing one of the rare mathematical features of Euclidean domains that do not generalize to all PIDs.  An explicit PID such that SK<sub>1</sub> is nonzero was given by Ischebeck in 1980 and by Grayson in 1981.<ref name=Ros75>Rosenberg (1994) p.75</ref> If ''A'' is a Dedekind domain whose quotient field is an [[algebraic number field]] (a finite extension of the rationals) then {{harvtxt|Milnor|1971|loc=corollary 16.3}} shows that SK<sub>1</sub>(''A'') vanishes.<ref name=Ros81>Rosenberg (1994) p.81</ref>
 
The vanishing of SK<sub>1</sub> can be interpreted as saying that K<sub>1</sub> is generated by the image of GL<sub>1</sub> in GL.  When this fails, one can ask whether K<sub>1</sub> is generated by the image of GL<sub>2</sub>.  For a Dedekind domain, this is the case: indeed, K<sub>1</sub> is generated by the images of GL<sub>1</sub> and SL<sub>2</sub> in GL.<ref name=Ros75/>  The subgroup of SK<sub>1</sub> generated by SL<sub>2</sub> may be studied by [[Mennicke symbol]]s.  For Dedekind domains with all quotients by maximal  ideals finite, SK<sub>1</sub> is a torsion group.<ref name=Ros78>Rosenberg (1994) p.78</ref>
 
For a non-commutative ring, the determinant cannot in general be defined, but the map GL(''A'') → ''K<sub>1</sub>(A)'' is a generalisation of the determinant.
 
====Central simple algebras====
In the case of a [[central simple algebra]] ''A'' over a field ''F'', the [[reduced norm]] provides a generalisation of the determinant giving a map K<sub>1</sub>(''A'') → ''F''<sup>&lowast;</sup> and SK<sub>1</sub>(''A'') may be defined as the kernel.  '''Wang's theorem''' states that if ''A'' has prime degree then SK<sub>1</sub>(''A'') is trivial,<ref name=GS47>Gille & Szamuely (2006) p.47</ref> and this may be extended to square-free degree.<ref name=GS48>Gille & Szamuely (2006) p.48</ref>  [[Shianghao Wang|Wang]] also showed that SK<sub>1</sub>(''A'') is trivial for any central simple algebra over a number field,<ref name=Wang1950>{{cite journal | zbl=0040.30302 | last=Wang | first=Shianghaw | authorlink=Shianghao Wang | title=On the commutator group of a simple algebra | journal=Am. J. Math. | volume=72 | pages=323–334 | year=1950 | issn=0002-9327 }}</ref> but Platonov has given examples of algebras of degree prime squared for which SK<sub>1</sub>(''A'') is non-trivial.<ref name=GS48/>
 
=== ''K''<sub>2</sub> ===
{{See also|Steinberg group (K-theory)}}
<!--Matsumoto's theorem (K-theory) links here-->
[[John Milnor]] found the right definition of ''K<sub>2</sub>'': it is the [[centre of a group|center]] of the [[Steinberg group (K-theory)|Steinberg group]] St(''A'') of ''A''.
 
It can also be defined as the [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] of the map
 
:<math>\varphi\colon\operatorname{St}(A)\to\mathrm{GL}(A),</math>
 
or as the [[Schur multiplier]] of the group of [[elementary matrices]].
 
For a field, K<sub>2</sub> is determined by [[Steinberg symbol]]s: this leads to Matsumoto's theorem. 
 
One can compute that K<sub>2</sub> is zero for any finite field.<ref name=Lam139>Lam (2005) p.139</ref><ref name=Lem66>Lemmermeyer (2000) p.66</ref>  The computation of K<sub>2</sub>('''Q''') is complicated: Tate proved<ref name=Lem66/><ref name=Mil101>Milnor (1971) p.101</ref>
 
:<math>K_2(\mathbf{Q}) = (\mathbf{Z}/4)^* \times \prod_{p\ge 3} (\mathbf{Z}/p)^* \  </math>
 
and remarked that the proof followed [[Gauss]]'s first proof of the [[Law of Quadratic Reciprocity]].<ref name=Mil102>Milnor (1971) p.102</ref><ref name=Gras205>Gras (2003) p.205</ref>
 
For non-Archimedean local fields, the group K<sub>2</sub>(''F'') is the direct sum of a finite [[cyclic group]] of order ''m'', say, and a [[divisible group]] K<sub>2</sub>(''F'')<sup>''m''</sup>.<ref name=Mil175>Milnor (1971) p.175</ref>
 
We have K<sub>2</sub>('''Z''') = '''Z'''/2,<ref name=Mil81>Milnor (1971) p.81</ref> and in general K<sub>2</sub> is finite for the ring of integers of a number field.<ref name=Lem385>Lemmermeyer (2000) p.385</ref>
 
We further have K<sub>2</sub>('''Z'''/''n'') = '''Z'''/2 if ''n'' is divisible by 4, and otherwise zero.<ref name=Sil228>Silvester (1981) p.228</ref>
 
====Matsumoto's theorem====
'''Matsumoto's theorem''' states that for a field ''k'', the second ''K''-group is given by<ref>{{citation | mr=0240214 | last=Matsumoto | first= Hideya | title=Sur les sous-groupes arithmétiques des groupes semi-simples déployés | journal=Ann. Sci. École Norm. Sup. (4) | issue= 2 | year=1969 | pages= 1–62
| url=http://www.numdam.org/item?id=ASENS_1969_4_2_1_1_0 | zbl=0261.20025 | language=French | issn=0012-9593 }}</ref><ref name=Ros214>Rosenberg (1994) Theorem 4.3.15, p.214</ref>
 
:<math>K_2(k) = k^\times\otimes_{\mathbf Z} k^\times/\langle a\otimes(1-a)\mid a\not=0,1\rangle.</math>
 
Matsumoto's original theorem is even more general: For any [[root system]], it gives a presentation for the unstable K-theory. This presentation is different from the one given here only for symplectic root systems. For non-symplectic root systems, the unstable second K-group with respect to the root system is exactly the stable K-group for GL(''A''). Unstable second K-groups (in this context) are defined by taking the kernel of the universal central extension of the [[Chevalley group]] of universal type for a given root system. This construction yields the kernel of the Steinberg extension for the root systems ''A<sub>n</sub>'' (''n''>1) and, in the limit, stable second ''K''-groups.
 
====Long exact sequences====
If ''A'' is a [[Dedekind domain]] with [[field of fractions]] ''F'' then there is a [[long exact sequence]]
 
:<math> K_2F \rightarrow \oplus_{\mathbf p} K_1 A/{\mathbf p} \rightarrow K_1 A \rightarrow K_1 F \rightarrow \oplus_{\mathbf p} K_0 A/{\mathbf p} \rightarrow K_0 A \rightarrow K_0 F \rightarrow 0 \ </math>
 
where '''''p''''' runs over all prime ideals of ''A''.<ref name=Mil123>Milnor (1971) p.123</ref>
 
There is also an extension of the exact sequence for relative K<sub>1</sub> and K<sub>0</sub>:<ref name=Ros200>Rosenberg (1994) p.200</ref>
 
:<math>K_2(A) \rightarrow K_2(A/I) \rightarrow K_1(A,I) \rightarrow K_1(A) \cdots \ . </math>
 
====Pairing====
There is a pairing on K<sub>1</sub> with values in K<sub>2</sub>.  Given commuting matrices ''X'' and ''Y'' over ''A'', take elements ''x'' and ''y'' in the [[Steinberg group]]  with ''X'',''Y'' as images.  The commutator <math>x y x^{-1} y^{-1}</math> is an element of K<sub>2</sub>.<ref name=Mil63>Milnor (1971) p.63</ref>  The map is not always surjective.<ref name=Mil6>Milnor (1971) p.69</ref>
 
== Milnor ''K''-theory ==
{{main|Milnor K-theory}}
 
The above expression for ''K<sub>2</sub>'' of a field ''k'' led Milnor to the following definition of "higher" ''K''-groups by
 
:<math> K^M_*(k) := T^*(k^\times)/(a\otimes (1-a)) </math>,
 
thus as graded parts of a quotient of the [[tensor algebra]] of the [[multiplicative group]] ''k''<sup>×</sup> by the [[two-sided ideal]], generated by the
 
:<math>\left \{a\otimes(1-a): \ a \neq 0,1 \right \}.</math>
 
For ''n'' = 0,1,2 these coincide with those below, but for ''n''≧3 they differ in general.<ref>{{Harvard citations|last=Weibel|year=2005}}, cf. Lemma 1.8</ref>  For example, we have ''K''{{su|b=''n''|p=''M''}}''(F<sub>q</sub>) = 0'' for ''n'' ≧2
but ''K<sub>n</sub>F<sub>q</sub>'' is nonzero for odd ''n'' (see below).
 
The tensor product on the tensor algebra induces a product <math> K_m \times K_n \rightarrow K_{m+n}</math> making <math> K^M_*(F)</math> a [[graded ring]] which is [[graded-commutative]].<ref name=GS184>Gille & Szamuely (2006) p.184</ref>
 
The images of elements <math>a_1 \otimes \cdots \otimes a_n</math> in <math>K^M_n(k)</math> are termed ''symbols'', denoted <math>\{a_1,\ldots,a_n\}</math>. For integer ''m'' invertible in ''k'' there is a map
 
:<math>\partial : k^* \rightarrow H^1(k,\mu_m) </math>
 
where <math>\mu_m</math> denotes the group of ''m''-th roots of unity in some separable extension of ''k''.  This extends to
 
:<math>\partial^n : k^* \times \cdots \times k^* \rightarrow H^n\left({k,\mu_m^{\otimes n}}\right) \  </math>
 
satisfying the defining relations of the Milnor K-group.  Hence  <math>\partial^n</math> may be regarded as a map on <math>K^M_n(k)</math>, called the ''Galois symbol'' map.<ref name=GS108>Gille & Szamuely (2006) p.108</ref>
 
The relation between [[étale cohomology|étale]] (or [[Galois cohomology|Galois]]) cohomology of the field and Milnor K-theory modulo 2 is the [[Milnor conjecture]], proven by Voevodsky.<ref>{{Citation | last1=Voevodsky | first1=Vladimir | author1-link=Vladimir Voevodsky | title=Motivic cohomology with '''Z'''/2-coefficients | doi=10.1007/s10240-003-0010-6 | mr=2031199 | year=2003 | journal=Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques. Publications Mathématiques | issn=0073-8301 | issue=98 | pages=59–104 | volume=98}}</ref> The analogous statement for odd primes is the [[Bloch-Kato conjecture]], proved by Voevodsky, Rost, and others.
 
== Higher ''K''-theory ==
The accepted definitions of higher ''K''-groups were given by {{harvtxt|Quillen|1973}}, after a few years during which several incompatible definitions were suggested. The object of the program was to find definitions of '''K'''(''R'') and '''K'''(''R'',''I'') in terms of [[classifying space]]s so that
''R'' ⇒ '''K'''(''R'') and (''R'',''I'') ⇒ '''K'''(''R'',''I'') are functors into a [[homotopy category]] of spaces and the long exact sequence for relative K-groups arises as the [[long exact homotopy sequence]] of a [[fibration]] '''K'''(''R'',''I'')&nbsp;→&nbsp;'''K'''(''R'')&nbsp;→&nbsp;'''K'''(''R''/''I'').<ref name=Ros2456>Rosenberg (1994) pp.245-246</ref> 
 
Quillen gave two constructions, the "+-construction" and the "''Q''-construction", the latter subsequently modified in different ways.<ref name=Ros246>Rosenberg (1994) p.246</ref>  The two constructions yield the same K-groups.<ref name=Ros289>Rosenberg (1994) p.289</ref>
 
=== The +-construction ===
One possible definition of higher algebraic ''K''-theory of rings was given by Quillen
 
:<math> K_n(R) = \pi_n(BGL(R)^+),</math>
 
Here π<sub>''n''</sub> is a [[homotopy group]], GL(''R'') is the [[direct limit]] of the [[general linear group]]s over ''R'' for the size of the matrix tending to infinity, ''B'' is the classifying space construction of [[homotopy theory]], and the <sup>+</sup> is Quillen's [[plus construction]].
 
This definition only holds for ''n>0'' so one often defines the higher algebraic ''K''-theory via
 
:<math> K_n(R) = \pi_n(BGL(R)^+\times K_0(R)) </math>
 
Since ''BGL''(''R'')<sup>+</sup> is path connected and ''K<sub>0</sub>(R)'' discrete, this definition doesn't differ in higher degrees and also holds for ''n=0''.
 
=== The Q-construction ===
{{main|Q-construction}}
 
The Q-construction gives the same results as the +-construction, but it applies in more general situations. Moreover, the definition is more direct in the sense that the ''K''-groups, defined via the Q-construction are functorial by definition. This fact is not automatic in the +-construction.
 
Suppose ''P'' is an [[exact category]]; associated to ''P'' a new category  Q''P'' is defined, objects of which are those of ''P'' and morphisms from ''M''′ to ''M''″ are isomorphism classes of diagrams
 
:<math> M'\longleftarrow N\longrightarrow M'',</math>
 
where the first arrow is an admissible [[epimorphism]] and the second arrow is an admissible [[monomorphism]].
 
The ''i''-th '''''K''-group''' of the exact category ''P'' is then defined as
 
:<math> K_i(P)=\pi_{i+1}(\mathrm{BQ}P,0)</math>
 
with a fixed zero-object 0, where B''QP'' is the ''classifying space'' of ''QP'', which is defined to be the [[geometric realisation]] of the ''[[Nerve (category theory)|nerve]]''  of ''QP''.
 
This definition coincides with the above definition of ''K<sub>0</sub>(P)''. If ''P'' is the category of finitely generated [[projective module|projective ''R''-modules]], this definition agrees with the above ''BGL<sup>+</sup>''
definition of ''K<sub>n</sub>(R)'' for all ''n''.
<!--
The ''K''-groups  ''K''<sub>i</sub>(''R'') of the ring ''R'' are then the ''K''-groups ''K''<sub>i</sub>(''P<sub>R</sub>'')  where ''P<sub>R</sub>'' is the category of finitely generated [[projective module|projective ''R''-modules]].
-->
More generally, for a [[scheme (mathematics)|scheme]] ''X'', the higher ''K''-groups of ''X'' are defined to be the ''K''-groups of (the exact category of) locally free [[Coherent sheaf|coherent sheaves]] on ''X''.
The following variant of this is also used: instead of finitely generated projective (=locally free) modules, take finitely generated modules. The resulting ''K''-groups are usually written ''G<sub>n</sub>(R)''. When ''R'' is a [[noetherian ring|noetherian]] [[regular ring]], then ''G''- and ''K''-theory coincide. Indeed, the [[global dimension]] of regular rings is finite, i.e. any finitely generated module has a finite projective resolution ''P<sub>*</sub> → M'', and a simple argument shows that the canonical map ''K''<sub>0</sub>(R) → ''G''<sub>0</sub>(R) is an [[isomorphism]], with ''[M]=&Sigma; ±[P<sub>n</sub>]''.  This isomorphism extends to the higher ''K''-groups, too.
 
=== The S-construction ===
A third construction of ''K''-theory groups is the S-construction, due to [[Friedhelm Waldhausen|Waldhausen]].<ref>{{Citation | last1=Waldhausen | first1=Friedhelm | author1-link=Friedhelm Waldhausen | title=Algebraic ''K''-theory of spaces | doi=10.1007/BFb0074449 | publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] | location=Berlin, New York | series=Lecture Notes in Mathematics | mr=802796 | year=1985 | volume=1126 | pages=318–419 | chapter=Algebraic K-theory of spaces | isbn=978-3-540-15235-4}}. See also Lecture IV and the references in {{Harvard citations|last1=Friedlander|last2=Weibel|year=1999}}</ref> It applies to categories with cofibrations (also called [[Waldhausen category|Waldhausen categories]]). This is a more general concept than exact categories.
 
== Examples ==
While the Quillen algebraic ''K''-theory has provided deep insight into various aspects of algebraic geometry and topology, the ''K''-groups have proved particularly difficult to compute except in a few isolated but interesting cases.
 
=== Algebraic K-groups of finite fields ===
The first and one of the most important calculations of the higher algebraic ''K''-groups of a ring were made by Quillen himself for the case of [[finite field]]s:
 
If  '''F'''<sub>''q''</sub> is the finite field with ''q'' elements, then:
 
* ''K''<sub>0</sub>('''F'''<sub>''q''</sub>) = '''Z''',
* ''K''<sub>2i</sub>('''F'''<sub>''q''</sub>)=0 for ''i'' &ge;1, 
* ''K''<sub>2i-1</sub>('''F'''<sub>''q''</sub>)= '''Z'''/(''q<sup>&nbsp;i</sup>''-1)'''Z''' for ''i''&nbsp;&ge;1.
 
=== Algebraic K-groups of rings of integers ===
Quillen proved that if ''A'' is the [[ring of integers|ring of algebraic integers]] in an algebraic [[number field]] ''F'' (a finite extension of the rationals), then the algebraic K-groups of ''A'' are finitely generated.  [[Armand Borel|Borel]] used this to calculate K<sub>''i''</sub>(''A'') and K<sub>''i''</sub>(''F'') modulo torsion. For example, for the integers '''Z''', Borel proved that (modulo torsion)
 
* ''K''<sub>i</sub> ('''Z''')/tors.=0 for positive ''i'' unless ''i=4k+1'' with ''k'' positive
* ''K''<sub>4''k''+1</sub> ('''Z''')/tors.= '''Z''' for positive ''k''.
 
The torsion subgroups of K<sub>2''i''+1</sub>('''Z'''), and the orders of the finite groups K<sub>4''k''+2</sub>('''Z''') have recently been determined, but whether the latter groups are cyclic, and whether the groups K<sub>4''k''</sub>('''Z''') vanish depends upon [[Vandiver's conjecture]] about the class groups of cyclotomic integers. See [[Quillen-Lichtenbaum conjecture]] for more details.
 
== Applications and open questions ==
Algebraic ''K''-groups are used in conjectures on [[special values of L-functions]] and the formulation of an [[non-commutative main conjecture of Iwasawa theory]] and in construction of [[higher regulator]]s.<ref name=Lem385>Lemmermeyer (2000) p.385</ref>
 
[[Parshin's conjecture]] concerns the higher algebraic ''K''-groups for smooth varieties over finite fields, and states that in this case the groups vanish up to torsion.
 
Another fundamental conjecture due to [[Hyman Bass]] ([[Bass' conjecture]]) says that all  of the groups ''G<sub>n</sub>(A)'' are finitely generated when ''A'' is a finitely generated '''Z'''-algebra. (The groups
''G<sub>n</sub>(A)'' are the ''K''-groups of the category of finitely generated ''A''-modules) <ref>{{Harvard citations|last1=Friedlander| last2=Weibel | year=1999}}, Lecture VI</ref>
 
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
 
== References ==
*{{citation | last=Bass | first=Hyman | authorlink=Hyman Bass | title=Algebraic ''K''-theory | series=Mathematics Lecture Note Series | location=New York-Amsterdam | publisher=W.A. Benjamin, Inc. | year=1968 | zbl=0174.30302 }}
*{{Citation | editor1-last=Friedlander |editorlink1=Eric Friedlander | editor1-first=Eric | editor2-last=Grayson | editor2-first=Daniel | title=Handbook of K-Theory | url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/978-3-540-23019-9/ | publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] | location=Berlin, New York | isbn=978-3-540-30436-4 | mr=2182598 | year=2005}}
* {{Citation | last1=Friedlander | first1=Eric M. | last2=Weibel | first2=Charles W. | title=An overview of algebraic ''K''-theory | publisher=World Sci. Publ., River Edge, NJ | mr=1715873 | year=1999 | pages=1–119}}
* {{citation | last1=Gille | first1=Philippe | last2=Szamuely | first2=Tamás | title=Central simple algebras and Galois cohomology | series=Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics | volume=101 | location=Cambridge | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | year=2006 | isbn=0-521-86103-9 | zbl=1137.12001 }}
* {{citation | last=Gras | first=Georges | title=Class field theory. From theory to practice | series=Springer Monographs in Mathematics | location=Berlin | publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] | year=2003 | isbn=3-540-44133-6 | zbl=1019.11032 }}
* {{citation | first=Tsit-Yuen | last=Lam | authorlink=Tsit Yuen Lam | title=Introduction to Quadratic Forms over Fields | volume=67 | series=Graduate Studies in Mathematics | publisher=[[American Mathematical Society]] | year=2005 | isbn=0-8218-1095-2 | zbl=1068.11023 | mr = 2104929 }}
* {{citation | last=Lemmermeyer | first=Franz | title=Reciprocity laws. From Euler to Eisenstein | series=Springer Monographs in Mathematics | location=Berlin | publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] | year=2000 | isbn=3-540-66957-4 | zbl=0949.11002 | mr=1761696 | doi=10.1007/978-3-662-12893-0 }}
* {{Citation | last1=Milnor | first1=John Willard | author1-link= John Milnor | title=Algebraic ''K''-theory and quadratic forms | mr=0260844 | year=1970 | month=1969 | journal=Inventiones Mathematicae | issn=0020-9910 | volume=9 | pages=318–344 | doi=10.1007/BF01425486 | issue=4}}
* {{Citation | last1=Milnor | first1=John Willard | author1-link= John Milnor | title=Introduction to algebraic K-theory | publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] | location=Princeton, NJ | mr=0349811 | year=1971 | zbl=0237.18005 | series=Annals of Mathematics Studies | volume=72 }} (lower K-groups)
*{{Citation | last1=Quillen | first1=Daniel | author1-link=Daniel Quillen | title=Algebraic K-theory, I: Higher K-theories (Proc. Conf., Battelle Memorial Inst., Seattle, Wash., 1972) | publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] | location=Berlin, New York | series=Lecture Notes in Math | doi=10.1007/BFb0067053 | mr=0338129 | year=1973 | volume=341 | chapter=Higher algebraic K-theory. I | pages=85–147 | isbn=978-3-540-06434-3}}
* {{Citation | last1=Quillen | first1=Daniel | author1-link= Daniel Quillen | title=Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians (Vancouver, B. C., 1974), Vol. 1 | publisher=Canad. Math. Congress | location=Montreal, Quebec | mr=0422392 | year=1975 | chapter=Higher algebraic K-theory | pages=171–176}} (Quillen's Q-construction)
* {{Citation | last1=Quillen | first1=Daniel | title=New developments in topology (Proc. Sympos. Algebraic Topology, Oxford, 1972) | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | series=London Math. Soc. Lecture Note Ser. | mr=0335604 | year=1974 | volume=11 | chapter=Higher K-theory for categories with exact sequences | pages=95–103}} (relation of Q-construction to +-construction)
*{{Citation | last1=Rosenberg | first1=Jonathan | authorlink=Jonathan Rosenberg (mathematician) | title=Algebraic K-theory and its applications | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TtMkTEZbYoYC | publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] | location=Berlin, New York | series=[[Graduate Texts in Mathematics]] | isbn=978-0-387-94248-3 | mr=1282290 | zbl=0801.19001 | year=1994 | volume=147}}.  [http://www-users.math.umd.edu/~jmr/KThy_errata2.pdf Errata]
* {{Citation | last1=Seiler | first1=Wolfgang | editor1-last=Rapoport | editor1-first=M. | editor2-last=Schneider | editor2-first=P. | editor3-last=Schappacher | editor3-first=N. | title=Beilinson's Conjectures on Special Values of L-Functions | publisher=Academic Press | location=Boston, MA | isbn=978-0-12-581120-0 | chapter=λ-Rings and Adams Operations in Algebraic K-Theory | year=1988}}
* {{citation | last=Silvester | first=John R. | title=Introduction to algebraic K-theory | series=Chapman and Hall Mathematics Series | location=London, New York | publisher=[[Chapman and Hall]] | year=1981 | isbn=0-412-22700-2 | zbl=0468.18006 }}
* {{Citation | last1=Weibel | first1=Charles | author1-link=Charles Weibel | title=Handbook of K-theory | url=http://www.math.uiuc.edu/K-theory/0691/KZsurvey.pdf | publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] | location=Berlin, New York | mr=2181823 | year=2005 | chapter=Algebraic K-theory of rings of integers in local and global fields | pages=139–190}} (survey article)
 
==Further reading==
*{{citation | last=Srinivas | first=V. | title=Algebraic ''K''-theory | edition=Paperback reprint of the 1996 2nd | series=Modern Birkhäuser Classics | location=Boston, MA | publisher=[[Birkhäuser]] | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-8176-4736-0 | zbl=1125.19300 }}
*C. Weibel "[http://www.math.rutgers.edu/~weibel/Kbook.html The K-book: An introduction to algebraic K-theory]"
 
== See also ==
*[[Bloch's formula]]
*[[Redshift conjecture]]
*[[K-theory spectrum]]
*[[Fundamental theorem of algebraic K-theory]]
 
== External links ==
 
* [http://www.math.uiuc.edu/K-theory/ K theory preprint archive]
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Algebraic K-Theory}}
[[Category:Algebraic K-theory| ]]
[[Category:Algebraic geometry]]

Revision as of 14:44, 27 December 2013

In mathematics, algebraic K-theory is an important part of homological algebra concerned with defining and applying a sequence

Kn(R)

of functors from rings to abelian groups, for all nonnegative integers n. For historical reasons, the lower K-groups K0 and K1 are thought of in somewhat different terms from the higher algebraic K-groups Kn for n ≥ 2. Indeed, the lower groups are more accessible, and have more applications, than the higher groups. The theory of the higher K-groups is noticeably deeper, and certainly much harder to compute (even when R is the ring of integers).

The group K0(R) generalises the construction of the ideal class group of a ring, using projective modules. Its development in the 1960s and 1970s was linked to attempts to solve a conjecture of Serre on projective modules that now is the Quillen-Suslin theorem; numerous other connections with classical algebraic problems were found in this era. Similarly, K1(R) is a modification of the group of units in a ring, using elementary matrix theory. The group K1(R) is important in topology, especially when R is a group ring, because its quotient the Whitehead group contains the Whitehead torsion used to study problems in simple homotopy theory and surgery theory; the group K0(R) also contains other invariants such as the finiteness invariant. Since the 1980s, algebraic K-theory has increasingly had applications to algebraic geometry. For example, motivic cohomology is closely related to algebraic K-theory.

History

Alexander Grothendieck discovered K-theory in the mid-1950s as a framework to state his far-reaching generalization of the Riemann-Roch theorem. Within a few years, its topological counterpart was considered by Michael Atiyah and Friedrich Hirzebruch and is now known as topological K-theory.

Applications of K-groups were found from 1960 onwards in surgery theory for manifolds, in particular; and numerous other connections with classical algebraic problems were brought out.

A little later a branch of the theory for operator algebras was fruitfully developed, resulting in operator K-theory and KK-theory. It also became clear that K-theory could play a role in algebraic cycle theory in algebraic geometry (Gersten's conjecture): here the higher K-groups become connected with the higher codimension phenomena, which are exactly those that are harder to access. The problem was that the definitions were lacking (or, too many and not obviously consistent). Using Robert Steinberg's work on universal central extensions of classical algebraic groups, John Milnor defined the group K2(A) of a ring A as the center, isomorphic to H2(E(A),Z), of the universal central extension of the group E(A) of infinite elementary matrices over A. (Definitions below.) There is a natural bilinear pairing from K1(A) × K1(A) to K2(A). In the special case of a field k, with K1(k) isomorphic to the multiplicative group GL(1,k), computations of Hideya Matsumoto showed that K2(k) is isomorphic to the group generated by K1(A) × K1(A) modulo an easily described set of relations.

Eventually the foundational difficulties were resolved (leaving a deep and difficult theory) by Template:Harvs, who gave several definitions of Kn(A) for arbitrary non-negative n, via the +-construction and the Q-construction.

Lower K-groups

The lower K-groups were discovered first, and given various ad hoc descriptions, which remain useful. Throughout, let A be a ring.

K0

The functor K0 takes a ring A to the Grothendieck group of the set of isomorphism classes of its finitely generated projective modules, regarded as a monoid under direct sum. Any ring homomorphism AB gives a map K0(A)K0(B) by mapping (the class of) a projective A-module M to MA B, making K0 a covariant functor.

If the ring A is commutative, we can define a subgroup of K0(A) as the set

where :

is the map sending every (class of a) finitely generated projective A-module M to the rank of the free -module (this module is indeed free, as any finitely generated projective module over a local ring is free). This subgroup is known as the reduced zeroth K-theory of A.

If B is a ring without an identity element, we can extend the definition of K0 as follows. Let A = BZ be the extension of B to a ring with unity obtaining by adjoining an identity element (0,1). There is a short exact sequence BAZ and we define K0(B) to be the kernel of the corresponding map K0(A) → K0(Z) = Z.[1]

Examples

K0(A) = Pic(A) ⊕ Z,

where Pic(A) is the Picard group of A,[3] and similarly the reduced K-theory is given by

An algebro-geometric variant of this construction is applied to the category of algebraic varieties; it associates with a given algebraic variety X the Grothendieck's K-group of the category of locally free sheaves (or coherent sheaves) on X. Given a compact topological space X, the topological K-theory Ktop(X) of (real) vector bundles over X coincides with K0 of the ring of continuous real-valued functions on X.[4]

Relative K0

Let I be an ideal of A and define the "double" to be a subring of the Cartesian product A×A:[5]

The relative K-group is defined in terms of the "double"[6]

where the map is induced by projection along the first factor.

The relative K0(A,I) is isomorphic to K0(I), regarding I as a ring without identity. The independence from A is an analogue of the Excision theorem in homology.[1]

K0 as a ring

If A is a commutative ring, then the tensor product of projective modules is again projective, and so tensor product induces a multiplication turning K0 into a commutative ring with the class [A] as identity.[2] The exterior product similarly induces a λ-ring structure. The Picard group embeds as a subgroup of the group of units K0(A).[7]

K1

Hyman Bass provided this definition, which generalizes the group of units of a ring: K1(A) is the abelianization of the infinite general linear group:

Here

is the direct limit of the GL(n), which embeds in GL(n+1) as the upper left block matrix, and the commutator subgroup agrees with the group generated by elementary matrices E(A)=[GL(A), GL(A)], by Whitehead's lemma. Indeed, the group GL(A)/E(A) was first defined and studied by Whitehead,[8] and is called the Whitehead group of the ring A.

Relative K1

The relative K-group is defined in terms of the "double"[9]

There is a natural exact sequence[10]

Commutative rings and fields

For A a commutative ring, one can define a determinant det: GL(A) → A* to the group of units of A, which vanishes on E(A) and thus descends to a map det: K1(A)A*. As E(A) ◅ SL(A), one can also define the special Whitehead group SK1(A) := SL(A)/E(A). This map splits via the map A* → GL(1, A) → K1(A) (unit in the upper left corner), and hence is onto, and has the special Whitehead group as kernel, yielding the split short exact sequence:

which is a quotient of the usual split short exact sequence defining the special linear group, namely

The determinant is split by including the group of units A* = GL1(A) into the general linear group GL(A), so K1(A) splits as the direct sum of the group of units and the special Whitehead group: K1(A)A* ⊕ SK1 (A).

When A is a Euclidean domain (e.g. a field, or the integers) SK1(A) vanishes, and the determinant map is an isomorphism from K1(A) to A.[11] This is false in general for PIDs, thus providing one of the rare mathematical features of Euclidean domains that do not generalize to all PIDs. An explicit PID such that SK1 is nonzero was given by Ischebeck in 1980 and by Grayson in 1981.[12] If A is a Dedekind domain whose quotient field is an algebraic number field (a finite extension of the rationals) then Template:Harvtxt shows that SK1(A) vanishes.[13]

The vanishing of SK1 can be interpreted as saying that K1 is generated by the image of GL1 in GL. When this fails, one can ask whether K1 is generated by the image of GL2. For a Dedekind domain, this is the case: indeed, K1 is generated by the images of GL1 and SL2 in GL.[12] The subgroup of SK1 generated by SL2 may be studied by Mennicke symbols. For Dedekind domains with all quotients by maximal ideals finite, SK1 is a torsion group.[14]

For a non-commutative ring, the determinant cannot in general be defined, but the map GL(A) → K1(A) is a generalisation of the determinant.

Central simple algebras

In the case of a central simple algebra A over a field F, the reduced norm provides a generalisation of the determinant giving a map K1(A) → F and SK1(A) may be defined as the kernel. Wang's theorem states that if A has prime degree then SK1(A) is trivial,[15] and this may be extended to square-free degree.[16] Wang also showed that SK1(A) is trivial for any central simple algebra over a number field,[17] but Platonov has given examples of algebras of degree prime squared for which SK1(A) is non-trivial.[16]

K2

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In 12 months 2013, c ommercial retails, shoebox residences and mass market properties continued to be the celebrities of the property market. Models are snapped up in report time and at document breaking prices. Builders are having fun with overwhelming demand and patrons need more. We feel that these segments of the property market are booming is a repercussion of the property cooling measures no.6 and no. 7. With additional buyer's stamp responsibility imposed on residential properties, buyers change their focus to commercial and industrial properties. I imagine every property purchasers need their property funding to understand in value. John Milnor found the right definition of K2: it is the center of the Steinberg group St(A) of A.

It can also be defined as the kernel of the map

or as the Schur multiplier of the group of elementary matrices.

For a field, K2 is determined by Steinberg symbols: this leads to Matsumoto's theorem.

One can compute that K2 is zero for any finite field.[18][19] The computation of K2(Q) is complicated: Tate proved[19][20]

and remarked that the proof followed Gauss's first proof of the Law of Quadratic Reciprocity.[21][22]

For non-Archimedean local fields, the group K2(F) is the direct sum of a finite cyclic group of order m, say, and a divisible group K2(F)m.[23]

We have K2(Z) = Z/2,[24] and in general K2 is finite for the ring of integers of a number field.[25]

We further have K2(Z/n) = Z/2 if n is divisible by 4, and otherwise zero.[26]

Matsumoto's theorem

Matsumoto's theorem states that for a field k, the second K-group is given by[27][28]

Matsumoto's original theorem is even more general: For any root system, it gives a presentation for the unstable K-theory. This presentation is different from the one given here only for symplectic root systems. For non-symplectic root systems, the unstable second K-group with respect to the root system is exactly the stable K-group for GL(A). Unstable second K-groups (in this context) are defined by taking the kernel of the universal central extension of the Chevalley group of universal type for a given root system. This construction yields the kernel of the Steinberg extension for the root systems An (n>1) and, in the limit, stable second K-groups.

Long exact sequences

If A is a Dedekind domain with field of fractions F then there is a long exact sequence

where p runs over all prime ideals of A.[29]

There is also an extension of the exact sequence for relative K1 and K0:[30]

Pairing

There is a pairing on K1 with values in K2. Given commuting matrices X and Y over A, take elements x and y in the Steinberg group with X,Y as images. The commutator is an element of K2.[31] The map is not always surjective.[32]

Milnor K-theory

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The above expression for K2 of a field k led Milnor to the following definition of "higher" K-groups by

,

thus as graded parts of a quotient of the tensor algebra of the multiplicative group k× by the two-sided ideal, generated by the

For n = 0,1,2 these coincide with those below, but for n≧3 they differ in general.[33] For example, we have KTemplate:Su(Fq) = 0 for n ≧2 but KnFq is nonzero for odd n (see below).

The tensor product on the tensor algebra induces a product making a graded ring which is graded-commutative.[34]

The images of elements in are termed symbols, denoted . For integer m invertible in k there is a map

where denotes the group of m-th roots of unity in some separable extension of k. This extends to

satisfying the defining relations of the Milnor K-group. Hence may be regarded as a map on , called the Galois symbol map.[35]

The relation between étale (or Galois) cohomology of the field and Milnor K-theory modulo 2 is the Milnor conjecture, proven by Voevodsky.[36] The analogous statement for odd primes is the Bloch-Kato conjecture, proved by Voevodsky, Rost, and others.

Higher K-theory

The accepted definitions of higher K-groups were given by Template:Harvtxt, after a few years during which several incompatible definitions were suggested. The object of the program was to find definitions of K(R) and K(R,I) in terms of classifying spaces so that RK(R) and (R,I) ⇒ K(R,I) are functors into a homotopy category of spaces and the long exact sequence for relative K-groups arises as the long exact homotopy sequence of a fibration K(R,I) → K(R) → K(R/I).[37]

Quillen gave two constructions, the "+-construction" and the "Q-construction", the latter subsequently modified in different ways.[38] The two constructions yield the same K-groups.[39]

The +-construction

One possible definition of higher algebraic K-theory of rings was given by Quillen

Here πn is a homotopy group, GL(R) is the direct limit of the general linear groups over R for the size of the matrix tending to infinity, B is the classifying space construction of homotopy theory, and the + is Quillen's plus construction.

This definition only holds for n>0 so one often defines the higher algebraic K-theory via

Since BGL(R)+ is path connected and K0(R) discrete, this definition doesn't differ in higher degrees and also holds for n=0.

The Q-construction

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The Q-construction gives the same results as the +-construction, but it applies in more general situations. Moreover, the definition is more direct in the sense that the K-groups, defined via the Q-construction are functorial by definition. This fact is not automatic in the +-construction.

Suppose P is an exact category; associated to P a new category QP is defined, objects of which are those of P and morphisms from M′ to M″ are isomorphism classes of diagrams

where the first arrow is an admissible epimorphism and the second arrow is an admissible monomorphism.

The i-th K-group of the exact category P is then defined as

with a fixed zero-object 0, where BQP is the classifying space of QP, which is defined to be the geometric realisation of the nerve of QP.

This definition coincides with the above definition of K0(P). If P is the category of finitely generated projective R-modules, this definition agrees with the above BGL+ definition of Kn(R) for all n. More generally, for a scheme X, the higher K-groups of X are defined to be the K-groups of (the exact category of) locally free coherent sheaves on X.

The following variant of this is also used: instead of finitely generated projective (=locally free) modules, take finitely generated modules. The resulting K-groups are usually written Gn(R). When R is a noetherian regular ring, then G- and K-theory coincide. Indeed, the global dimension of regular rings is finite, i.e. any finitely generated module has a finite projective resolution P* → M, and a simple argument shows that the canonical map K0(R) → G0(R) is an isomorphism, with [M]=Σ ±[Pn]. This isomorphism extends to the higher K-groups, too.

The S-construction

A third construction of K-theory groups is the S-construction, due to Waldhausen.[40] It applies to categories with cofibrations (also called Waldhausen categories). This is a more general concept than exact categories.

Examples

While the Quillen algebraic K-theory has provided deep insight into various aspects of algebraic geometry and topology, the K-groups have proved particularly difficult to compute except in a few isolated but interesting cases.

Algebraic K-groups of finite fields

The first and one of the most important calculations of the higher algebraic K-groups of a ring were made by Quillen himself for the case of finite fields:

If Fq is the finite field with q elements, then:

  • K0(Fq) = Z,
  • K2i(Fq)=0 for i ≥1,
  • K2i-1(Fq)= Z/(q i-1)Z for i ≥1.

Algebraic K-groups of rings of integers

Quillen proved that if A is the ring of algebraic integers in an algebraic number field F (a finite extension of the rationals), then the algebraic K-groups of A are finitely generated. Borel used this to calculate Ki(A) and Ki(F) modulo torsion. For example, for the integers Z, Borel proved that (modulo torsion)

  • Ki (Z)/tors.=0 for positive i unless i=4k+1 with k positive
  • K4k+1 (Z)/tors.= Z for positive k.

The torsion subgroups of K2i+1(Z), and the orders of the finite groups K4k+2(Z) have recently been determined, but whether the latter groups are cyclic, and whether the groups K4k(Z) vanish depends upon Vandiver's conjecture about the class groups of cyclotomic integers. See Quillen-Lichtenbaum conjecture for more details.

Applications and open questions

Algebraic K-groups are used in conjectures on special values of L-functions and the formulation of an non-commutative main conjecture of Iwasawa theory and in construction of higher regulators.[25]

Parshin's conjecture concerns the higher algebraic K-groups for smooth varieties over finite fields, and states that in this case the groups vanish up to torsion.

Another fundamental conjecture due to Hyman Bass (Bass' conjecture) says that all of the groups Gn(A) are finitely generated when A is a finitely generated Z-algebra. (The groups Gn(A) are the K-groups of the category of finitely generated A-modules) [41]

Notes

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

References

  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010 (lower K-groups)
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010 (Quillen's Q-construction)
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010 (relation of Q-construction to +-construction)
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010. Errata
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010 (survey article)

Further reading

  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • C. Weibel "The K-book: An introduction to algebraic K-theory"

See also

External links

  1. 1.0 1.1 Rosenberg (1994) p.30
  2. 2.0 2.1 Milnor (1971) p.5
  3. Milnor (1971) p.14
  4. Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010, see Theorem I.6.18
  5. Rosenberg (1994) 1.5.1, p.27
  6. Rosenberg (1994) 1.5.3, p.27
  7. Milnor (1971) p.15
  8. J.H.C. Whitehead, Simple homotopy types Amer. J. Math. , 72 (1950) pp. 1–57
  9. Rosenberg (1994) 2.5.1, p.92
  10. Rosenberg (1994) 2.5.4, p.95
  11. Rosenberg (1994) Theorem 2.3.2, p.74
  12. 12.0 12.1 Rosenberg (1994) p.75
  13. Rosenberg (1994) p.81
  14. Rosenberg (1994) p.78
  15. Gille & Szamuely (2006) p.47
  16. 16.0 16.1 Gille & Szamuely (2006) p.48
  17. One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  18. Lam (2005) p.139
  19. 19.0 19.1 Lemmermeyer (2000) p.66
  20. Milnor (1971) p.101
  21. Milnor (1971) p.102
  22. Gras (2003) p.205
  23. Milnor (1971) p.175
  24. Milnor (1971) p.81
  25. 25.0 25.1 Lemmermeyer (2000) p.385
  26. Silvester (1981) p.228
  27. Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  28. Rosenberg (1994) Theorem 4.3.15, p.214
  29. Milnor (1971) p.123
  30. Rosenberg (1994) p.200
  31. Milnor (1971) p.63
  32. Milnor (1971) p.69
  33. Template:Harvard citations, cf. Lemma 1.8
  34. Gille & Szamuely (2006) p.184
  35. Gille & Szamuely (2006) p.108
  36. Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  37. Rosenberg (1994) pp.245-246
  38. Rosenberg (1994) p.246
  39. Rosenberg (1994) p.289
  40. Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010. See also Lecture IV and the references in Template:Harvard citations
  41. Template:Harvard citations, Lecture VI